The Columns of Ancient Egypt

When we think of Egyptian temples, one of the principle architectural elements that comes to mind is the column. In fact, it is difficult to imagine a temple such as Karnak without thinking of its columned halls, and what many visitors will take away with them is visions of pylons, obelisks, statues and columns. Column shafts were often decorated with colorful depictions in painted, carved relief, and remain some of the most interesting architectural elements in Egyptian structures.

Most people who have any familiarity with ancient Egypt will immediately recognize the form of Lotus and Papyrus style columns, but actually no less the about 30 different column forms have been isolated from temples of the various periods. Most of the time, the columns shafts were copies in stone of supports made from plants, resembling either a trunk or a bundle of stems of smaller diameter. Also the shape of the capital, the top of the column, also had a plant theme, and at the transition of the capital to the shaft, five bands might be found representing the lashing which held together the bundle of stems of which the earliest columns were made. Above the capital a low abacus usually connected the column to the architraves placed above it. However, there are exceptions to all of this. At least prior to the Graeco-Roman Period, we also find columns with tent pole and the goddess Hathor and other god or goddess motifs.

Actually, the type of column was usually, but not always dictated by its placement within the temple, and therefore most temples actually employ more then one design. Most of the time, "Bud" style columns were used in the outer temple courts, particularly away from the central axis of the inner temple. "Open" style capitals were most often found in the temples central areas. However, as time passed, into the late antiquities period, there was considerably more variation in these themes. In the Graeco-Roman period, column styles became especially varied, and many Egyptian designs were exported to Greece and Roman, where they underwent further evolutionary changes.

Left: Tent Pole style columns in the Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III at Karnak

In the very earliest of Egyptian history, columns were often made from one large monolithic block. However, in all later periods columns were usually built up in sectional blocks that were then first shaped and then smoothed from the top down. They were then normally painted, and afterwards, were difficult to tell that they were not cut from a single piece of stone.

Major Types of Columns and/or Capitals

Plant Style Columns

Fluted Column

This early form of column first appears in the Step Pyramid enclosure of Djoser, but the form died mostly died out by the New Kingdom. However, their use continued in Nubia. These columns resembled and represented bundled reeds or plant stems, but during later periods, sometimes took the form of a polygonal column shaft.

What is probably most interesting about fluted columns in Egypt is that they very probably represent the first columns made from stone in the world. While the fluted columns may have lost their popularity as an independent style many of the future columns incorporated design elements from them, in effect, simply incorporating a more complex capital.

Palmiform Columns

The Palmiform Columns were also one of the earliest styles of columns in Egypt temple architecture. Example of this type of column were found, for example, in the 5th Dynasty pyramid mortuary complex of Unas. However, after the 5th Dynasty, these types of columns are rare, but continued to occasionally be used. Mostly we find examples during later periods at the Taharga temple in Kawa in Upper Nubia, and in some temples dating to the Graeco-Roman Period. However, they may also be found in the Ramesseum. There, at the inner side of the court, are two rows of ten columns. The four middle columns in each row are Papyriform columns while the others are Palmiform. These columns obviously had a palm tree motif, but did not actually represent the tree itself, but rather eight palm fronds lashed to a pole.

Lotiform Columns

Lotiform columns were perhaps used in non-secular buildings then in the temples. However, this is not to say that they were not also sometimes employed in religious architecture. The simple, lotus bud form of the column is enjoyed widespread use in the Old and Middle Kingdom temples. Its use declined during the New Kingdom, but again found popularity during the Graeco-Roman Period. This column usually has ribbed shafts representing the the stems of the Lotus, and capitals in the form of a closed (bud) or open lotus flower.

Just as a side note, Lotus plants specifically are not present in the earlier times of Egyptian antiquity. What we so often refer to as "Lotus" was in fact a type of water lily.

Papyriform Columns

There are several variations in this type of column. Some have circular shafts representing a single plant, while others have ribbed shafts that represent a plants with multiple stems. The capitals could be closed (buds) or open in a wide, bell-shaped form. During the New Kingdom, the shafts of most papyriform columns taper upwards from bases decorated with triangular patterns representing stylized stem sheaths. The earliest examples we know of the circular shaft style columns can be found in Djoser's Step Pyramid enclosure at Saqqara. However, these are not free standing columns, but incorporated into other structures. Though the circular shaft form of the column seems to have been used throughout Egyptian history, they saw widespread use during the New Kingdom, along with both open and closed capital styles.

We first find the multi-stemmed form of this column employed during the 5th Dynasty, but it was also frequently used during the New Kingdom. 18th Dynasty columns are particularly fine, with considerable artistic detail. They became more stylized by the 19th Dynasty.

Coniform Columns

This column style apparently quickly died out after their use in Djoser's Step Pyramid enclosure wall. It has not been found in later temples. The style is characterized by a fluted shaft surmounted by a capital representing the branches of a conifer tree.

Tent Pole Columns

Though we probably know of other applications of this style from documentation, apparently the only surviving, known examples are found in the Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III at Karnak. It is possible that very early examples of the style were also constructed of brick. There is little doubt that this type of column made of stone was rare. The column is basically a representation in stone of the wooden "poles" used to support light structures such as tents, and sometimes shrines, kiosks or ships cabins.

Why this tent pole design was used is perhaps somewhat of a mystery, though they certainly reflect back on the earliest of Egypt's structures and their wood counterparts. It is sometimes believe that the specific columns in Tuthmosis III temple were modeled after actual wooden poles of his military tent.

Campaniform Columns

Considerable variety existed in this style of columns. They sometimes took the shape of a floral column or pillar. Some had circular, ribbed or square shafts (pillars). They all had some form of flower shaped capital. Two of the best known of these are located in the Hall of Annals of Tuthmosis III at Karnak. At this temple, the, the structures take the shape of a pillar. They including two style of column, with one representing the heraldic plant of Lower (northern) Egypt, the Papyrus, and the other type representing the symbolic plant of Upper (southern) Egypt, the Lotus. They are positioned symbolically on the northern and southern sides of the hall. Such placement was not unusual, and we see many examples of columns positioned in the north and south of courtyards with northern and southern motifs. This specific types of column is rare, but their more stylized forms appeared most frequently in the Graeco-Roman Period.

Composite Columns

These columns were common during the Graeco-Roman Period. Composite Columns were probably an evolutionary extension of the campaniform columns with capitals decorations including floral designs of any number of real, or even imagined plants. There variation could be endless, and they became so utterly stylized that the original floral motifs could hardly be recognized. In fact, this type of column continued to evolve in Greece and Rome, becoming very different then the Egyptian variety.

None Plant Style Columns

While natural plant columns were the most common in Egypt, other column and pillar types could represent deities or their attributes. Examples of these include:

Hathoric Columns

This type of column never appeared prior to the Middle Kingdom, and was probably originated in that period. They are usually instantly recognizable by their capital in the shape of the cow headed goddess, Hathor. They often had a simple, round shaft. All considered, they were fairly common, and examples may be found in the temple of Nefertari at Abu Simbel and within the hypostyle hall of the Ptolemaic (Greek) temple at Dendera. The Dendera columns are probably the best known, where all twenty four columns have the head of this goddess on all four sides. We also know of several other temples with Hathor columns, including the temple of Nekhebet at el Kab. Sistrum columns are also associated with Hathor, but represent in the capitals and shafts the handles and rattles of the sistrum.

Osiride Pillars

All examples of this type of pillar are engaged, meaning that they are part of another architectural element. They appear to also have originated in the Middle Kingdom, and and take the form of a statue of the god Osiris on the pillar's front surface.

Lotiform Columns	Hathor Columns at Dendera
A Closed (bud) Style Capital	An example of Open Capital engaged Columns
Osiride Pillars, normally identifiable by the crossed arms	An Open Papyrus Column srouce: http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/columns.htm

Temples of Egypt

Writing an introduction to ancient Egypt temples is considerably more difficult then examining any specific structure, for a number of different reasons. First of all, the term "temple" is misleading, and secondly, the term covers a huge variety of different structures that evolved over such a vast period of time that many people have a difficulty comprehending just how long a time this period spans.

The Ramessuem on the West Bank at Luxor (Ancient Thebes)

For example, think of the Roman Coliseum (in Rome). It is almost 2,000 years old, and most of us would think of it as very ancient. Yet, when the Romans first came to Egypt, they were awe struck by Egyptian temples, some of which at that time were already more ancient to the Romans, then the Roman Coliseum is to us. So we must consider the effect that these temples had on the ancient Egyptians. Imagine the feelings of old tradition and holiness felt by a young priest when he first enters St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. How must a young Egyptian priest felt as he strolled the courts of the much more temple of Heliopolis, which was much more ancient to him then St. Peter's would be to a young priest of today.

Webster's New World Dictionary defines temple as "1. a building for the worship of god or gods, and 2. A large building for some special purpose". For the second definition, they provide the example, "a temple of art". Neither of these definitions fit the ancient Egyptian temple very well, and yet, almost every religious structure in Egypt outside of the various types of tombs are almost always referred to as temples.

Certainly some of these "temple" structures do embrace both of Webster's definitions. In fact, it is difficult to imagine most any large, ancient building not falling under the second definition, including palaces and governmental buildings. However, our modern readers are more likely to think in terms of the first definition, that of a temple being a place of worship. However, this definition is simply too limited to fit even the structures that many modern Egyptologists better define as a "god's mansion". Even these temples sometimes had many other functions, acting sometimes as fortresses, administrative centers and even concrete expression of propaganda or royal retreats. However, it is difficult to define some other religious structures that are called temples as houses of worship or "god's mansions". They may have other political or all together different purposes.

It was the ancient Egyptian temple that received endowments. It was the mortuary temple and the cult of the dead king that funded the entire pyramid complex of the early kings, for example. Temples owned land, livestock and received donations, sometimes including the spoils of war, in order to support often large populations of priests, workers, and sometimes even an entire support town.

The Temple of Karnak at Luxor

The Temple of Karnak today remains the worlds largest religious structure, but what is perhaps even more interesting is that it might not have been, or indeed was probably not Egypt's largest temple. Certainly the Temple of Ptah in Memphis, though for the most part completely gone today, may have been larger. It was older, and located in what was often the capital of Egypt, and more often the administrative center of the ancient country. Other temples in the Nile Delta might have been just as large as Karnak, if not larger.

Sites such as Karnak, Dendera and Kom Ombo would most likely fall under the category of "god's mansion". They were more then religious "temples" however. While the god may certainly have been worshiped in these temples, it was also his symbolic home, if not considered his physical residence, and the functions of the temple were as much to serve his or her symbolic physical needs as they were for the god's worship. There was probably little or no "preaching" as such, or carrying the message of the god to the people by priests associated with these "temples". Rather the efforts were directed inward, towards the care of the gods.

Also, though we often make a very specific distention between mortuary temples of kings, for example, and temples such as Karnak, they were actually very similar. Kings were considered gods, and after their death, they required a "mansion" and the same attention as other gods. Both regular and mortuary temples served to keep the name of the king or god alive.

Right: Temple of Dendera

The real distinction, religiously, seems to be in regards to structures that might not so easily be defined as "god's mansions". Nefertari's temple at Abu Simbel was certainly dedicated to the goddess Hathor, it would seem. But this also seems to be a situation where a "god's mansion" was built as much for political as for religious purposes. These great monuments at Abu Simbel, consisting of her temple, and the larger temple of her husband, Ramesses II, were not just temples. They were also reminders of Egypt's greatness to her southern neighbors. Other structures hardly fit within the "god's mansion" category at all. For example, Sed-festival Temples that celebrated the king's jubilees seem to have had a completely different purpose than "god's mansions", and ka Temples provided a residence not to the dead king, but for his soul.

Nevertheless, for convenience, we will refer to most religious structures other then tombs as temples in the remainder of this reference.

Dynastic era temples may be found throughout Egypt, though the ones that have survived time are mostly in the south. They were built for many different forms of worship, as well as other purposes. Some were major temples dedicated to major deities, while others were dedicated to a number of different deities. Some were mortuary temples, where the temple was dedicated to the deified dead king, and where he was worshiped and cared for by his cult. There were also valley temples, which were often no more then monumental gateways connected to the king's mortuary chapel by a causeway. There were all manner of specialized temples, such as Sed-festival temples, ka temples, sun temples, coronation temples and others.

Many of Egypt's temples became complex systems of buildings, added to by generations of pharaohs over sometimes thousands of years. Such temples include those of Luxor and Karnak, but others long destroyed, such as the Temple of Ptah. In fact, there are any number of northern temples, though long gone, that would have rivaled the southern temples that we most often visit today.

Left: Kom Ombo

Most Temples had some sort of organized structure that evolved into a traditional, if somewhat varied floor plan. For example, the mortuary temple of 5th Dynasty kings invariably had an outer section and an inner sanctuary. The outer section would consist of an entrance corridor, followed by an open columned courtyard. Often, the pillars were inscribed with the king's name and title, and the northern columns would have scenes oriented to northern Egypt's symbolic gods, with a similar arrangement on the southern columns. Various additional minor chambers might also exist within the outer section, including, for example, an entrance vestibule or a guard station. Between the outer temple and the inner section there was usually a transverse corridor, and in the center of the long, west wall a doorway lead to the inner sanctuary of which the front section consists of a chapel with five niches for statues. Behind the chapel would be an offering hall, notable for a false door on the west wall that faces the pyramid, and before the door, an offering altar. Within the inner sanctuary there might also be additional rooms, such as vestibules and antechambers. Associated with both the outer and inner sections of the temple would be storage and other annexes to one side or both of the main temple components.

Non-mortuary temples often also had courtyards, chapels, offering halls, vestibules, antechambers, just like the mortuary temples. They tend to vary considerably in their style and elements, though temples built for specific gods tended to be more uniform (though not always). One of the major differences between mortuary temples and others was that the non-mortuary temples were very often added to, built upon and even usurped by various kings. Though in rare cases a mortuary temples, such as that of Djoser at Saqqara, became places of high holiness, and were built upon by later kings, most mortuary temples were never added to or usurped. They therefore most often were much more simple than major non-mortuary temples.

Latter temples took the form of fortresses, with massive entrance pylons and enclosure walls, huge courtyards, columned or pillared halls and inner sanctuaries.

About Egyptian Pyramids

There are no more famous ancient sites within Egypt, or for that matter elsewhere in the world, than the Great Pyramids at Giza. They are, without question, the icon most associated with the Egypt. They have been both the main destination for tourists, and a source of imaginative thought to the world for over three thousand years.

However, there are actually over 100 pyramids in Egypt, many of which are relatively unknown to anyone who is not an ancient Egypt enthusiast. All but a very few are grouped around and near the City of Cairo, just south of the Nile Delta. Otherwise, only one royal pyramid is known in southern Egypt (at Abydos), that being the one built by Ahmose, founder of the 18th Dynasty and Egypt's New Kingdom. It may have also been the last royal pyramid built in Egypt.

Hence, major pyramids were not built throughout Egypt's ancient history. The Pyramid Age began with a burst of building, starting with the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser. Some of the early kings, most specifically Snefru, built more than one pyramid. Almost all of the kings added to their number through the end of the Middle Kingdom, with the possible exception of the First Intermediate Period between the Old and Middle Kingdoms. After the first Pharaoh of Egypt's New Kingdom, Ahmose, royal pyramid building by Egyptians ceased entirely. Somewhat abruptly the kings of the New Kingdom chose, rather than making their tombs completely obvious, to hide them in the hills of the West Bank of Thebes (modern Luxor).

However, smaller pyramids were constructed, for example in the Deir el-Medina necropolis, by private individuals. The Late Period Nubians who ruled Egypt also built relatively small pyramids with much steeper sides, though these were in fact constructed in Nubia itself. This tradition was carried on in Nubia after these southern rulers lost control of Egypt, and eventually, more pyramids were actually built in Nubia than Egypt, though on a much smaller scale.

Other pyramids in the world certainly exist, but their purpose, for the most part, was different than those of ancient Egypt. The most famous outside Egypt are probably those located in Mexico and to the south of Mexico, but these appear to have been built more as temples. In Egypt, all but a select few of the pyramids were built as tombs, sometimes to hold the physical body of a pharaoh (as well as other individuals), or to hold the soul of the deceased (as in the case of the small cult pyramids built next to the larger ones). Otherwise, the purpose of only a few small, regional stepped pyramids remains elusive.

While pyramids were, for the most part, tombs for the Pharaohs of Egypt, one must nevertheless question the reason that Egyptian rulers chose this particular shape, and for that matter, why they built them so large. Today, we believe that they chose the shape in order to mimic the Benben, a pyramid shaped stone found in the earliest of temples, which itself is thought to symbolize the primeval mound from which the Egyptians believed life emerged. This also connected the pyramid to Re, the Sun God, as it was he, according to some of the ancient Egypt mythology, who rose from the primeval mound to create life.

As far the great size of many of the pyramids in Egypt, we can really only surmise that the Pharaohs were making a statement about their own power and perhaps, about the glory and strength of their country. However, it should also be remembered that many of the latter pyramids were not nearly as large as the Great Pyramids at Giza (and elsewhere).

Pyramids evolved. The first of them was not a perfectly formed pyramid. In fact, the first Pyramid we believe that was built in Egypt, that of Djoser, was not a true pyramid at all with smooth sides and a point at the top. Rather, its sides were stepped, and the top of the pyramid truncated with a flat surface (as best we know). As the Egyptian pyramids evolved, there were failures as well glorious failures until finally, they got it right with what was probably the first smooth sided true pyramid built at Meidum. In fact, pyramids continued to evolve throughout their history, perhaps not always in outward appearances, but in the way that they were built and in the theology surrounding their construction. For example, towards the latter part of Egypt's Pyramid Age, Osirian beliefs seem to have had more and more impact on the arrangement and layout of the subterranean chambers.

However, soon after the first pyramids were built, their form became somewhat standardized. Royal pyramid complexes included the main pyramid, a courtyard surrounding the main pyramid, a much smaller cult pyramid for the king's soul, a mortuary temple situated next to the main pyramid, an enclosure wall and a causeway that led down to a valley temple. Some pyramid complexes included subsidiary, smaller pyramids for family members, and most were surrounded by some sort of tombs for family members.

Our thinking on pyramids has evolved considerably over the years. Many of us who are a bit older were taught that the pyramids were built using Jewish slave labor, which is a fabrication of immense proportions. Most of the pyramids were built long before the Jews made their appearance historically and currently, many if not most scholars believe they were not built using slave labor at all (or perhaps a nominal number of slaves).

Otherwise, we can also dismiss offhand alternative theories related to aliens or some lost culture being responsible for pyramid building. There is just far too much evidence, including tools, drawings, evolutionary changes, and even worker villages that rule these farfetched ideas obsolete.

However, some mysteries remain, even in some of the best well known Pyramids. The most famous of them all, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, continues, year after year, to give up a few more secrets, and there doubtless remains much to learn from these Egyptian treasures. There may even be one or more pyramids yet to be discovered.

Egypt Feature Story Ahmose Pyramid at Abydos

hey had been cooling their heals on the terraces of the Longchamps Hotel for just about a month. Stephen Harvey and his gang from the University of Memphis had their permissions to excavate, but lacked the security clearances needed to move the group to Abydos where they would continue the excavation of Ahmose I's pyramid and mortuary temple. They all seemed to be enjoying their stay in Egypt, but there was clearly a mounting anxiety that the digging season, as well as their funding would run out before they ever began.

This group, actually operating under the aegis of the University of Pennsylvania-Yale Institute of Fine Arts and the New York University Expedition to Abydos, hasn't the big profile of groups such as Kent Weeks, but rather represents the more typical, often under funded archaeological expeditions one sees doing important, but sometimes neglected work throughout Egypt. As Stephen Harvey explains, state of the art technology generally becomes available to them when it hits the local Radio Shack, and their digging season begins when the high profile groups take off during the heat of the summer. Yet they have an important project that has already yielded considerable and valuable contributions to our understanding of Egyptian history around the end of the Hyksos occupation of Egypt.

We had big plans for interviewing various members of the group, but then suddenly the security clearances were provided, and seemingly in the blink of an eye, they were off to the dig. Well never fear. We made arrangements to follow this dig and the group's work, so we will be revisiting their efforts as their excavations continue.

Almost all of Egypt's pyramids are located within a short day trip from Cairo in Lower Egypt. Indeed, most of Egypt's pyramids can be found within the confines of four or five sites, including Giza, Saqqara, Dahshur, Abusir and Abu Rawash. If we include the pyramids just east of the Fayoum region, we account for all of Egypt's pyramids with the exception of only a few scattered about in other locations, of which only a meager few are to be found in southern Egypt. Hence, even though mostly small, these southern pyramids hold a certain interest and intrigue. Most of them are thought to have not functioned in the same manner as their larger northern cousins. Seemingly, they usually do not have mortuary complexes attached, and some seem to lack any substructure. Many Egyptologists believe that they functioned as regional monuments to the king, perhaps built in the region of their rural palaces. However, the pyramid that Stephen Harvey and his group are excavating seems to be one of the exception.

Ahmose I's pyramid at Abydos is generally considered to be the last such royal complex built in Egypt. However, it has a number of other distinguishing attributes, including the first known representations of horses and complex chariot warfare.

This complex was originally investigated by Arthur Mace and Charles T. Currelly for the Egypt Exploration Fund between 1899 and 1902, but their work was very partial and all that they left us was a sketch map of the general location without identifying the location, size or extent of Ahmose's pyramid and related structures. While this early team did excavate a large part of the mortuary temple's interior, they only published two stone architectural fragments.

Left: Three archers in the army of King Ahmose; Right: A depiction of Egypt's first horses

Therefore, Stephen Harvey's team was surprised to find thousands of inscribed fragments when they began work in 1993 on the site. Most of the fragments were corners and edges of blocks. One set of relief fragments on the eastern side of the inner court included a representation of a group of three tightly massed archers firing arrows, with teams of bridled chariot horses, ships with oar descending into water, and fallen men recognizable by their characteristic fringed garments and long swords as Asiatic soldiers (probably Hyksos). Some small fragments bore the names of Apophis, who was Ahmose's principal Hyksos opponent, and Avaris, the Hyksos capital. The excavators believe that these scenes represent the only known contemporary visual record of Ahmose's struggles against the Hyksos.

Actually, Stephen discovered two principle types of reliefs at the site. One style characterized by high raised reliefs carved in chalky white limestone and painted in bright pastel colors, can be ascribed to the actual reign of Ahmose, while a second style, more classic in nature with unpainted low raised reliefs, is probably from the reign of Amenhotep I, the son of Ahmose.

The Complex

The ruins of Ahmose at Abydos are extensive, not only consisting of a pyramid and mortuary complex, but also the town of the workers who built and later managed the facilities.

The mortuary temple that is recognizable as such lies somewhat north of the pyramid. This structure appears for the most part to be the outer section of the temple, with a plan consisting of a massive wall on the east and a central doorway that lead to a forecourt. From the forecourt, a doorway leads to a square court. Foundation blocks at the back might have supported the pillars of a colonade. However, between this section of the temple and the pyramid itself are what probably remains of an inner court where little was found except patches of pavement and four circular granaries along the back wall. Mace also discovered a semi-circular mudbrick deposit that may have either been the remains of a ramp, or the inner sanctuary of the temple.

At the southeast corner of the pyramid, a second smaller temple was also discovered that was probably dedicated to Ahmose's sister-wife, Ahmose-Nefertari.

The pyramid had a core built of sand and loose stone rubble, which, after having lost most of its outer casing, fell into ruin. Originally, it was probably some 52.5 meters (172 ft) square with a similar or slightly smaller height. Mace estimated, from the remains of two intact courses of casing stones that survived at the eastern base of the pyramid, that its slope measured about 60 degrees. Neither Mace, nor the later excavations by C. T. Currelly, revealed any internal (or apparently actual substructure) chambers.

On a line back nearly south of the pyramid and mortuary complex also lies a shrine that was dedicated to Tetisheri, who was Ahmose I's grandmother. This structure is a massive budbrick building with a shape not unlike that of a mastaba. A corridor lead through the center of the building to a remarkable stela inscribed by Ahmose at the rear. It includes two depictions of Tetisheri, and hieroglyphic text of the kings intentions to build a pyramid in memory of his grandmother.

The top of Tetisheri's Stela

Further southward, and on a line with the shrine to Tetisheri, and Ahmose's pyramid complex is a tomb, perhaps a cenotaph, or false tomb, built by Ahmose. This structure carved into the bedrock was rather quickly and poorly done, perhaps being only a token Osirian underworld. The entrance is a pit relatively small in size, that leads to a low, initial horizontal passage. Rooms on both sides of the corridor are crudely shaped and left unfinished. The corridor eventually leads to a hall with a total of 18 pillars.

Finally, southward from this tomb on the same line as the pyramid and the Tetisheri shrine is a set of terraces built against the high cliffs. The bottom terrace is made of bricks and measured 300 feet in length, with a second terrace of rough field stone on a second level. It is likely that these terraces were meant to support a temple, perhaps reminiscent of that built by Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. A cache of votive ceramic vessels, model stone vases and boats with oars were buried near the south end.

Right: a fragment bearing the name of the Kyksos king, Apophis (Ipep)

Even though Ahmose I's mummy was probably found at Thebes, Stephen Harvey seems to believe, because of the extensive ruins of Amhose at Abydos, that it is possible the king was originally buried in that holy place. No tomb of his has been discovered in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes (modern Luxor).

What is more certain then the burial place of King Ahmose is that we will be continuing to update you on this dig, as well as some of the archaeological processes, so look for more information soon.

Alexandria The City

The Building of Alexandria

The second largest city in Egypt, Alexandria, known as "The Pearl of the Mediterranean", has an atmosphere that is more Mediterranean than Middle Eastern ; its ambience and cultural heritage distance it from the rest of the country although it is actually only 225 km. from Cairo.

Founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, Alexandria became the capital of Graeco-Roman Egypt, its status as a beacon of culture symbolized by Pharos, the legendary lighthouse that was one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The setting for the stormy relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Antony, Alexandria was also the center of learning in the ancient world. But ancient Alexandria declined, and when Napoleon landed, he found a sparsely populated fishing village.

From the 19th century Alexandria took a new role, as a focus for Egypt's commercial and maritime expansion. This Alexandria has been immortalized by writers such as E-M- Forster and Cavafy. Generations of immigrants from Greece, Italy and the Levant settled here and made the city synonymous with commerce, cosmopolitanism and bohemian culture.

Alexandria is a city to explore at random. It's as important to enjoy the atmosphere as it is to see the sights.

Old Alexandria

Dinocrates built the Heptastadion, the causeway between Pharos and the mainland. This divided the harbors into the Western and Eastern. The Eastern harbor was really where the old harbor from the Middle Ages was located.

Of modern Alexandria, the oldest section is along the causeway which links what was once Pharos island with the mainland and includes the districts of Gumrok (the oldest dating to about the 16th century and known as the customs district) Anfushi, and Ras el-Tin (Cape of Figs). The latter two districts date to about the period of Mohammed Ali (1805-49). Collectively, these districts are known to westerners as the Turkish Quarter. They have had a number of ups and downs over the years, particularly due to the plague during the 17th century. The area forms somewhat of a T-shape, dividing the Eastern Harbor from the Western Harbor.

This section of Alexandria is known to us more from books then what we may actually see in the area. Where the Pharos Lighthouse once stood, is now occupied by the Fort of Quit Bay (1) out on the area that circles up around the top of Eastern Harbor forming the eastern section of the top of the T. Heading south from the Fort of Quit Bay, we come to the stunning Abu El-Abbas Mosque (2). West of this is the Anfushi Tombs (3), some of the oldest in Alexandria and well worth a visit.

Central Alexandria

Heading towards the mainland past the Abu El-Abbas Mosque and connecting with Shari Faransa street leads to the Suq district. Just before entering the district one finds the interesting little Terbana Mosque (4). In the Suq district (5), one finds Alexandria's only surviving wakalas, which is a part of the El-Shorbagi Mosque complex founded in 1757. This was also the area where Alexandria's Jewish community lived, but most have now migrated to Israel. Different areas have specialized in different goods and one may find all manner of products from jewelry to Medicinal plants (Suq El-Magharba) to Bedouin clothing (Suq El-Libia).

Continuing down Faransa one passes Midan Tahrir (6) and the street turns into Salah Salem, and finally connects with Al-Horreya.

However, Midan Tahrir, popularly called Manshiya, has considerable history. The areas was once home to Diplomats and known as Place Des Consuls, but after the statue of Mohammed Ali was placed here in 1873 the name was changed to Midan Mohammed Ali. In 1882, it was bombarded by the British and all but destroyed. The Alexandria Stock Exchange was once located here, and it was from the midan that Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal.

The street named Al-Horreya (Tariq abd el-Nasser) which transverses the area from east to west was in ancient times the Canopic Way with the Gate of the Sun at the eastern end and the Gate of the Moon at the western end. At that time, there were probably columns lining the road. The main north to south street, now Sharia el-Nebi Daniel, ran from the East Harbor all the way to Lake Harbor on Lake Mariout.

Just south of the intersection of Al Horreya and el-Nebi Daniel was the site traditionally thought to be the burial place of Alexander the Great, but that has not been located, and may in fact be beneath the Mosque of Nebi Daniel (7) or in a nearby Greek necropolis. The famous Alexandria Library was probably nearby. However, the only real antiquities site that can be viewed in the area is Kom el-Dikka (8), a small Roman theater that has been excavated. Nearby is also a bath house of the era. To the east is the Antiques District where dealers sell antiquities, books, old weapons and furniture. Here is also the Attarine Mosque, which was once a church dedicated to Athanasius.

Further south along the tramway is Pompey's pillar (9) and nearby the Catacombs of Kom ash-Shuqqafa (10).

Wondering along el-Nebi Daniel are several other attrations, including the French Cultural Center, and nearby the Eliahu Hanabi Synagague (11), which is the only active synagogue in Alexandria and houses the combined treasures of the seven former Alexandrian synagogues.

Back to the north on el-Nebi Daniel, next to the harbor where Ramla station is now located at Midan Saad Zaghlul was the location of the Caesareum (12). This was a magnificent temple begun by Cleopatra for her lover Antony and subsequently completed by their enemy Octavian, though none of this remains.in situ. Nearby is the well known Cecil Hotel, built in 1930, Smerset Maugham stayed here, as did Winston Churchill, and the British Secret Service one maintained a suite for their operations.

Midan Saad Zaghlul (13) is the entertainment heart and nerve center of Alexandria. here, as terminals and train stations provide a backdrop for cinemas, restaurants and night spots. It was the setting of Lawrence Durrell's Alexandria Quartet and the famous Alexandria coffee houses. The square is dominated by an impressive monument dedicated to Saad Zaghlul, a former national leader.

The Greek Quarter and Bab Rosetta District

Back on Al Horreya heading east, as we pass the Graeco-Roman Museum (a notable museum well worth a visit) we move into the Greek Quarter of Alexandria, one of the most beautiful residential districts. The wonderful old villas include the massive Miclavez building, which is opposite the Town Hall and nearby the Adda Complex built in 1929. This is where the wealthy Greeks lived at the turn of the century, and the streets are still named after the Ptolemic, Pharaonic, Abbasid and Fatimid rulers. Further east is the Greek Orthodox patriarchate andthe Church of St. Saba.

Further east, Al Horreya opens into a beautiful green area known as the Shallalat Gardens, which was once the fortification of Bab Rosetta. But in 1905, Alexandria created a garden area here with waterfalls and the only Alexandria cistern which can be viewed. This cistern is an example of those which once dotted Alexandria providing fresh water to her inhabitants.

The Corniche

The Corniche is doted with Casinos built on stilts and rows of beach huts. The avenue here did not always exists, for until the 20th century, the areas remained fortified by a five mile long wall with towers which had protected the city since the 13th Century. In the early 1900s, a strip of land with a width of about 100 years was reclaimed from the sea, and the area became popular with beach goers. That is no longer the case, but it remains a lively area of Alexandria.

On the western end of the Corniche near Silsila where the New Alexandria Library is being constructed is the Shatby Tombs which are said to be the oldest in Alexandria. Nearer the San Stefano area across the tram tracks is also the Royal Jewelry Museum.

The Mahmudiya Canal

A walk along the Mahmudiya Canal brings one face to face with the working class and industrial districts of Alexandria, and is pleasant along the old paved road bordered by the canal and sycamore trees. South of the Greek district along the canal is the Antoniadis Gardens, which seep with history. Here, the poet Callimachus lived and taught, and in 640 AD, Pompilius prvented the King of Syria from capturing Alexandria. But less then a year later, Amr Ibn el-As camped here, before taking the city. The well known Water Traffic Circle is also in the area.

Here one finds the Zoological Gardens, the small Museum of Natural History and the Fine Arts Museum in the Moharrem Bey area, and a Rose Garden. The beautiful public gardens extend into the surrounding area where the Antoniadis Palace is located, and there is even a nearby Roman tomb.

El-Muntaza

This area along the coast about 15 miles east of Alexandrias old district along the Corniche is where many of the modern Alexandrian hotels are located, as well as one of the elegant heritage hotels. Khedive Abbas II built the Salamlik as a residence. Here also is the magnificent Montaza Palace.

Sinai

History

The Sinai was inhabited by the Monitu and was called Mafkat or Country of Turquoise. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai at two locations, now called by their Arabic names Wadi Maghareh and Serabit el-Khadim. The mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable. These may be the first known mines.

The Mamluks of Egypt controlled the Sinai from 1260 to 1518, when the Ottoman Sultan, Selim the Grim, destroyed them at the Battles of Marj Dabiq and al-Raydaniyya. From then until the early 20th century, Sinai, as part of the Pashalik of Egypt, was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. In 1906 it became part of British-controlled Egypt, when the Turkish governmen yielded to British pressure to hand over the peninsula. The border imposed by the British runs in an almost straight line from Rafah on the Mediterranean shore to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba. This line has served as the eastern border of Sinai ever since, and is now the international border between Israel and Egypt.

Present

The Sinai Peninsula is currently divided among several governorates, or provinces, of Egyptian administration. The southern portion of the Sinai is called Ganub Sina in Arabic, literally "South of Sinai"; the northern portion is named Shamal Sina', or "North of Sinai". The other three governates converge on the Suez Canal, including el-Sewais, literally "the Suez"; on its southern end and crosses into Egypt-proper. In the center is el-Isma'ileyyah, and Port Said lies in the north with its capital at Port Said.

Approximately 66,500 people live in Ganub Sina and 314,000 live in Shamal Sina'. Port Said itself has a population of roughly 500 000 people. Portions of the populations of el-Isma'ileyyah and el-Suweis live in Sinai, while the rest live on the western side of the Suez Canal in Egypt-proper. The combined population of these two governorates is roughly 1.3 million (only a part of that population live in the Sinai, while the rest live on the western side of the Suez Canal).

Over the past 30 years the Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its spectacular natural beauty, rich coral reefs, biblical history, and proximity to Israel. Large numbers of Egyptians from the Nile Valley and Delta have moved to the area to work in tourism, while at the same time development has robbed native Bedouin of their grazing land and fishing grounds. As a result the Sinai has been the site of several terrorist attacks targeted at Westerners and Israelis, but also Egyptians on holiday

Luxor

"The mysterious Nile, that gigantic serpent that winds so fabulously, so ungraspably, back through history"

On the East Bank of the Nile, in the City of the living, Luxor and Karnak Temples greet the sunrise. The sunset on the West Bank throw shadows through the City of the Dead: the Tombs of the Nobles, the Valley of the Kings, Queen Hatshepsut's temple. Today, you can walk through history; past statues with the heads of gods and animals, beneath pillars carved with lotus buds and papyrus. Ride in a horse-drawn caleche, sail in a felucca, take a sunset cruise or see the city from a hot-air balloon.

Cairo

"This little world, the great Cairo... the most admirable and the greatest city seen upon the earth... the Microcosmus of the greater world..." William Lithgow, 1614

Founded on the site of Babylon, near the ruins of ancient Memphis, Cairo has been the largest city in Africa for centuries. Modern Cairo encompasses many former cities and their monuments: the pyramids of the pharaohs; early Christian monasteries and churches; Salah al-din's Citadel; mosques of the Mamluke and Ottoman sultans Five thousand years of culture are concentrated here, at the center of three continents.

Travel through time in a city that is a living index to civilization. Enjoy the comforts of a cosmopolitan twentieth-century capital. Cairo, a microcosm of the greater world.

" The Nile does not change. Indeed I know of no place where everything changes as much as it does here and nothing is ever changed... you feel quite at home." Henry Adams describing Cairo, 1898

Today's skyline mixes minarets and palm trees with art deco villas and multicoloured neon-but you can still see the sunset over the Nile. Cairo has a unique atmosphere: both exciting and relaxed. The city pulses with life while the Nile flows on to the sea. "The Mother of the world" is one of the friendliest (and safest) cities in the world: Egyptian hospitality will ensure that, wherever you come from, you'll feel quite at home.

"... a palimpsest, in which the Bible is written over Herodotus, and the Koran over that" Lady Duff Gordon on Egypt, 1865

Modern History of Egypt

French Occupations

On the pretext of securing the authority of the Ottoman Sultan in Egypt, and incidentally protecting the interests of the European merchants, Napoleon invaded Egypt in July 1798. In reality, however, the French invasion was another campaign designed to control the land route and ultimately the sea route to India, thwarting the British advances in the Indian Ocean. The French weren’t able to hold the country for long, active local resistance and British intervention forced them to capitulate and leave for Europe by September 1801.

The Mohammed Ali Dynasty

As soon as the French evacuated Egypt the Albanian regiment, under their commander Mohammed Ali, revolted against the Ottomans, who were ruling Egypt at the time. The people of Cairo turned to Mohammed Ali to restore order and the Ottoman Sultan duly confirmed their choice naming him viceroy. He founded a dynasty that ruled until June 1952.

Mohammed Ali restored public order and engaged upon a reform of education and medical practice. His navy and army were second to none in Europe and managed to create a large Egyptian empire. He was so successful that an attempt to restore the authority of the Ottoman Sultan over Egypt failed. This led to the European intervention, for the British, Russian and Austrian empires hastened to support the "sick man" - meaning the Ottoman Empire - and imposed a new settlement which asserted Ottoman authority, reduced his forces and confiscated his possessions. The only consolation which Mohammed Ali got was that the office of viceroy would be hereditary in his line, developing upon the eldest male.

Mohammed Ali died in August of 1849 and was succeeded by the eldest of his line Abbas I, a grandson. After ruling only for five years, however, Abbas I was murdered in 1854. More popular was the third viceroy, Said Pasha. He granted the charter to build the Suez Canal in 1856 to de Lesseps the French, however, the British were not to be ignored and they were given the concessions for the formation of a telegraph company and the Bank of Egypt. Said incurred the National Debt by borrowing from the European bankers. He died in 1863 and was succeeded by Ismail, a son of Mohammed Ali’s brother.

During the reign of Ismail many great schemes for modernization of Egypt were undertaken, covering the administrative system, education, communications and transport. These plans however, involved further European interference and heavy taxation of the population. Citing Egypt’s foreign debts, France and Britain imposed a receivers commission, which forced Ismail to reduce his army and surrender both public and private property, including all of Egypt’s shares in the Suez Canal. In 1879 the controlling powers appealed to the sultan to depose of Ismail and name his eldest son Tawfik his successor.

British Occupation

Ismail’s son Tawfik wasn’t able to withstand either European pressure or the nationalist fervor that arose to resist it. Using an internal political crisis and the protection of foreign interests as their excuse, the British finally intervened outright. Although their presence in Egypt was supposed to be temporary, their occupation of the country lasted more than 70 years.

Tawfik Pasha reformed the Egyptian economy and relinquished financial control to the British who began to run the government of the country. Egyptian nationalists, horrified at Tawfik's submission to the British, forced him to appoint their leader Ahmed Orabi as Minister of War, but the European reaction was swift and violent. Alexandria was shelled and Ismailiyya occupied. Orabi's army was defeated at Tel El Kabir and the British reinstalled Tawfik as a puppet. Orabi was driven into exile and Mustafa Kamil became the leader of the nationalist movement.

British influence over Egypt continued to increase. The country became an economic colony, totally dependent upon the import of British manufactured goods and the export of its raw cotton.

Tawfik’s eldest son Abbas II came to the throne in 1892. A young idealist with little political experience, he wished to ease British control of the administration. British’s occupation with recovery of the Sudan from the Mahdiyyah, and their confrontation with the French as a result, left Egypt in relative calm. Abbas II’s 20 years reign is remembered as one of Cairo’s golden ages because of a new building program. At the outbreak of war in 1914, the British declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed of Abbas Helmi, replacing him with his uncle Husayn Kamil, who was govern the title of Sultan. Egypt was thus informed that its 400-year- old role as an Ottoman province had come to an end. When Husayn Kamil died in 1917, the British chose Fuad, Ismail’s sixth son to succeed him.

Opposition to British rule crystallized among the elite during the war and was encouraged by Sultan Fuad. A delegation was formed to speak on behalf of the people, but the British refused to give permission to its leader Saad Zaghlul to go to discuss independence. As a result, a mass uprising occurred which is referred to as the 1919 revolution. In 1921, Egypt was declared an independent sovereign state, though the control of the defense, communication, the Sudan and protection of foreign residents remained under British control. In 1923, a constitution was promulgated. King Fuad died in 1936, and was followed by his son Faruq. Soon after his accession a new treaty was negotiated that abolished British military presence except in time of war to the Suez Canal zone. With the outbreak of World War II, the British reoccupied the country, as the terms of 1936 treaty entitled.

Growing Zionist claims in Palestine and the crisis in Lebanon initiated in 1944 an Arab conference in Alexandria, during which the foundations of the Arab league were laid. At the same time, popular resentment against the British increased. In February 1946, the students organized riots and fighting occurred with the British troops. In May the British declared their intention to withdraw troops from Egypt, and by July 1948 an interim measure of self-government was granted. Clashes continued, however, between the Egyptians and the British forces in the Canal Zone. The same year the Arab world suffered a shattering blow when a joint Arab invasion of the newly declared state of Israel was ignominiously defeated by the smaller Israeli army. Ashamed and appalled by the decadence and gross incompetence of their leaders, a group of idealistic young Egyptian officers were to emerge as leaders of a revolution which would alter the course of modern Arab history.

The Egyptian Republic

When parliamentary elections were held in 1952 the Wafd Party won the majority of seats and Nahas Pasha as prime minister repealed the 1936 treaty which gave Britain the right to control the Suez Canal. King Farouk dismissed the prime minister, igniting anti-British riots which were put down by the army.

This event compelled, a secret group of army officers which became known as the Free Officers, to seize power and force Egypt’s ruler to abdicate in favor of his son, Ahmed Fuad. Eleven month later the young king was likewise dispossessed. Egypt was declared a republic and was ruled by General Mohammed Naguib. In July 1954 negotiations with the British resulted in an agreement to withdraw all foreign troops within 20 months, although the bases in the Canal Zone were to be kept operational.

On 22 June Nasser was elected president and one of the immediate actions was the redistribution of land among the farmers. Land reform was put into effect, breaking up the large feudal estates into smaller parcels of land and redistributing land to the fellaheen who for millennia had been an underclass of serfs. Prior to the revolution, Egypt had been an elitist society with few if any state-sponsored benefits to the large majority of the population. The new government established extensive free educational programs for both boys and girls and developed the country's medical infrastructure.

In 1956, to compensate for the abrogation of promises from the British and the Americans to help build the new High Dam at Aswan, the Suez Canal company was nationalized. The Canal was a symbol of European power to Europeans as well as to Egyptians. The French and British therefore responded three months later by supporting Israel, which had already conducted raids within Egyptian territory several times. This tripartite aggression gave them control of Sinai and the Canal Zone. The UN ordered an immediate cease-fire and under pressure from the USA the aggressors agreed to withdraw.

In 1957 all commercial agencies, banks and companies were fully Egyptainsed in management and capital. On June 5th 1967, another Israeli attack resulted in the loss of Sinai Peninsula. Israel continued its aerial attacks until 1970 when a truce was agreed upon.

Nasser expressed vehement opposition to Israel and outspoken criticism of the West. His relations with the West, however, were complex. He knew that he could never develop Egypt without large infusions of foreign aid and he knew that the West was the most reliable source of this aid. Yet he came to discover that the more anti-Western his stance appeared to be, the more foreign aid he was offered by western countries to buy his moderation. When at one point in his regime he became more conciliatory to the west, his foreign aid dropped dramatically. As a founding-leader of the Non-aligned movement Nasser could have it both ways. Along with India's Nehru and Indonesia's Sukarno, Gamal Abdel Nasser became a major international power-broker in the politics of the developing world.

His death in 1970 of a heart attack sent shock waves throughout the Arab world. In a stunning display of emotion, millions of Egyptians followed his funeral procession through the streets of Cairo.

Anwar al-Sadat, one of the group of officers and Nasser’s vice-president ruled the country after Nasser’s death. After much planning Israeli-occupied Sinai was invaded by the Egyptian army on 6 October 1973. The Egyptian attack against the Israeli forces was unprecedented success and revolutionized the tactics of warfare. Shortly after restrictions on foreign investment and exchange control were lifted and an Open Door Policy was launched.

Following victory in Sinai Sadat took the courageous step of negotiating peace talks on the withdrawal of Israel from the rest of the occupied Sinai and the establishment of a Palestinian state.

Sadat was succeeded by the President Hosni Mubarak. He started quickly to rebuilt both his country’s infrastructure and its relations with the rest of the world. Mubarak accelerated the process of privatization and developed Egypt’s tourist infrastructure which enhanced its lucrative tourist industry. More impressively, he managed to resume diplomatic and trade relations with moderate Arab countries while maintaining the treaty with Israel. By the end of the 1980s Egypt was once again playing a leading role in Arab politics. Egypt’s vital role in support of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in the Gulf War combined with death of socialist-communist influence in the Arab world returned the country to the center of Middle Eastern politics.

Islamic Egypt

In the winter of AD 639, Amr ibn al As leading an Arab army coming from Syria entered Egypt. The Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and Syria were already under Muslim control, and the Khalif Omar had turned his armies against the two great hostile empires on his flanks - Persia in the east and Byzantium in the west.

In AD 640, Amr advanced not towards the capital Alexandria, but towards a more strategic goal, the fortress of Babylon, about 12km south of the point where the Nile divides to form the Delta. He defeated the Byzantine forces at Heliopolis then he encircled Babylon which was captured in April 641. Alexandria was Amr's next goal and by September 642 it was his by a treaty. The Copts, who were reconciled to the Arabs who had rid them of Greek Melkites and allowed them to elect their own Patriarch, welcomed the Arabs.

On the orders of the Khalif Omar, a town was built beside the fortress of Babylon called Fustat. It was from Fustat, instead of Alexandria, that Egypt was administrated as a province of the Khalifate, first the Khalifs in Medina, then the Ummayyads in Damascus followed by the Abbasids in Baghdad. From the conquest in 642 AD until 868, Egypt was a province ruled either from Medina, Damascus or Baghdad, but from that time, 868, Egypt gained a sort of an autonomy when two dynasties, the Tulunids followed by the Ikhshids, ruled Egypt as a separate country until the Fatimids.

The Fatimids (969-1171) were the only Shiite's who ever ruled Egypt. They were called as such since they claimed descent from Fatimah (the daughter of the Prophet Mohammed) and Ali the fourth Khalif. During the Fatimids' period, the Crusaders came to in the Middle East and started occupying a great part of the Arab lands. The two ruling dynasties that followed the Fatimids as rulers of Egypt were the Ayyubids and the Mameluks. They were the rulers who carried the responsibility of fighting the Crusaders.

The Mameluks were defeated by the Ottomans (1516-17) and Egypt returned back to being a province and yielded to the Ottomans, which like the rest of the Empire that was ruled from Istanbul, until the French occupation (1798-1801). Mohammed Ali, who started a dynasty that ruled Egypt till 1952, when the last member of his family was exiled out of the country by the revolution of The 23rd of July, followed the Ottomans.

Early Christianity in Egypt

According to tradition, Saint Mark brought Christianity to Egypt in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero in the first century. Some of the early converts to the new faith came from within the Jewish community in Egypt, which represented the largest concentration outside of Palestine at that time.

Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria, as is clear from the New Testament writings found in Bahnasa in Middle Egypt, which date around the year 200, and a fragment of the Gospel of Saint John, which was found in Upper Egypt. The Gospel is written in Coptic and dates back to the first half of the second century.

History of the Coptic Christian Church

The word Coptic is derived from the Arabic corruption of the Greek 'Aigyptas' which was derived from 'Hitaptah' one of the names for Memphis the first capital of ancient Egypt. The modern use of the term Coptic refers to the Christian Egyptians.

In its early years in Egypt Christianity was engaged in a lengthy struggle against the indigenous pagan religious practices descending from ancient times as well as against Hellenism which had started in Alexandria and other urban centers. To counter the appeal of Greek philosophy the Christian leadership in Egypt established the Cathecal School of Alexandria (the Didascalia) which provided intellectual refutations of Greek philosophers and sophisticated advocacy of Christianity. Nonetheless, the transformation of Egypt into a Christian country was not an entirely smooth process. There was resistance from the pagan and Hellenized elements of the population, and there were divisions within the Christian Church itself between advocates of the various theological schools evolving at this time, due to several incidents that occurred , eg: the burning in 391AD of the pagan cult center. It is obvious that the dominance of the new religion was gained at the expense of the intellectual heterogeneity that had distinguished the city.

The pre-Islamic period for the Copts was marked by two major events, the beginning of the Coptic calendar in AD 284, in commemoration of the persecution suffered by Egypt's Christians and the establishment of an independent Egyptian Church in 451 AD, following the council of Chalcedon which condemned the monphysite theology. Thereafter the relations between Egypt's Copts and Constantinople were strained as the Copts refused to recognize the religious authority of the Patriarchs of Alexandria appointed by the Byzantine State. These clerics were given widespread administrative power, in 550 AD, against the political and the religious dominance of Egypt by the outsiders. This opposition may in part account for the Copts acceptance of the Muslim conquest who saw the Muslims as liberators from the Byzantine yoke.